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Pyschology Notes Pysch 101, Lecture notes of Educational Psychology

Ryerson UniversityEducational Psychology

An overview of psychology as a scientific study of the brain and behavior. It discusses the challenges of studying behavior, the concept of science, and the principles of scientific research. It also covers research methods, including classical conditioning and cognitivism. the difference between normal and abnormal psychology and the behaviorism theory.

Typology: Lecture notes

2022/2023

Available from 10/10/2023

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What is Psychology
- Study of the mind
- Scientific study of the brain and behavior
- Multiple levels of analysis
There are a bunch of challenges:
-behavior is extremely difficult because of the personality differences
of people ( people react differently to different situations)
- Its caused by many factors (multiply determined)
- Psychological influences not different
- Individual and cultural differences
Reciprocal determinism
- Albert Bandura : created this theory
- A person’s behavior is influenced by environment and personal
factors, situational context also influence each other
- 3 components : individual, the environment, and the actual behavior.
- Ex: A person who is outgoing will influence his friends to be more
outgoing
Cultural and individual differences :
- Cultural differences are beliefs, behaviors, languages, practices and
expressions that are a specific ethnicity, race or national origin.
What is science ?
- An approach to evidence
- Testing/examination
- Decision to accept or reject (discard)
Naive realism:
- how we see the world
- the human tendency to believe that we see the world around us
objectively, and that people who disagree with us must be
uninformed, irrational, or biased
- We don't think our emotions, past experiences, or cultural identity
affect the way we perceive the world
- EX:when we are traveling in a desert, we often see water bodies
nearby, which is only a mere illusion known as a mirage
Theory/hypothesis
- Scientific theory- existing data
- Generates testable predictions
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What is Psychology

  • Study of the mind
  • Scientific study of the brain and behavior
  • Multiple levels of analysis There are a bunch of challenges:
  • behavior is extremely difficult because of the personality differences of people ( people react differently to different situations)
  • Its caused by many factors (multiply determined)
  • Psychological influences not different
  • Individual and cultural differences Reciprocal determinism
  • Albert Bandura: created this theory
  • A person’s behavior is influenced by environment and personal factors, situational context also influence each other
  • 3 components : individual, the environment, and the actual behavior.
  • Ex: A person who is outgoing will influence his friends to be more outgoing Cultural and individual differences :
  • Cultural differences are beliefs, behaviors, languages, practices and expressions that are a specific ethnicity, race or national origin. What is science?
  • An approach to evidence
  • Testing/examination
  • Decision to accept or reject (discard) Naive realism:
  • how we see the world
  • the human tendency to believe that we see the world around us objectively, and that people who disagree with us must be uninformed, irrational, or biased
  • We don't think our emotions, past experiences, or cultural identity affect the way we perceive the world
  • EX:when we are traveling in a desert, we often see water bodies nearby, which is only a mere illusion known as a mirage Theory/hypothesis
  • Scientific theory- existing data
  • Generates testable predictions

Hypothesis :

  • Specific predictions derived from these explanations based on existing data, precise
  • testable statements of what the researchers predict will be the outcome of the study. **A good scientist
  1. Engages in bias (free practice)**
  • Aware of bias Confirmation bias: the tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one's existing beliefs or theories. 2. Attempts to avoid/prevent bias
  • Adapt to scientific method procedure Belief perseverance
  • Don't confuse with facts
  • Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to one's initial belief even after receiving new information that contradicts or disconfirms the basis of that belief.
  • Example: someone might think that the argument “all fish can swim, and salmon can swim, therefore salmon are fish” is logically sound, because its conclusion aligns with their preexisting beliefs 3. Recognize can be wrong - Open to revision
  • avoids conclusion Scientific vs metaphysical Metaphysics : study of reality Scientific : the study of the natural or physical or actual world, testable Pseudoscience:
  • Imposter of science
  • Different metaphysical claims can be tested
  • Pseudoscience provides us with misinfo
  • Pseudoscience gives sense of comfort Dangers of pseudoscience : Opportunity cost:
  • Opportunity cost is an economics term that refers to the value of what you have to give up in order to choose something else.
  • Direct harm: The harm is perceived as part of the action, difficult to separate from the action - Indirect harm: An indirect result or effect is not caused immediately but happens because of something else that they have done.
  • Inability to think scientifically as citizens Scientific thinking - best safeguard against danger PRINCIPLES: Principle 1: ruling out alternative explanations
  • Alternative explanations are alternative ways of explaining something. A good alternative explanation is a credible one, supported by evidence and uninfluenced by bias. Principle 2: Correlation vs Causation A correlation between two things (a statistical association) does not necessarily mean there is a cause-and-effect relationship between them.
  • two things go together.
  • When a causal claim (e.g., A causes B) is made from a correlation, it’s always
  • important to ask whether the causal connection could be reversed (i.e., B causes A) or whether a third variable could explain the relationship (i.e., A and B do not cause each other; instead C causes A and B to go together). If there is more than one possible pattern of cause-and-effect that could result in a correlation, we cannot use that correlation as evidence that any one specific pattern is necessarily true. Principle 3: Falsifiability
  • Scientific claims must be capable of being disproved. In

other words, we should be able to think of a way to test whether or not a claim is true; there should be data we can collect that tell us if our hypothesis is likely to be true or false. If the claim is made in such a way that there’s no good way to test it, The claim is not really scientific. Principle 4: Replicability

  • Scientific findings must be capable of being duplicated following the same methodology. In other words, in science, other people must be able to follow our methods and should get similar results Principle 5: Extraordinary claims
  • A claim that contradicts what we already know, or that seems to promise to completely explain or solve a complex problem in a new way, must have a lot of evidence to back it up.The bigger the claim, the more evidence must be provided. Principle 6: Parsimony (a.k.a. Occam’s razor)
  • If two hypotheses explain a phenomenon equally well, in science we generally prefer the simpler explanation.The simpler explanation is not necessarily correct, but we should start by using that explanation and only make a more complicated one when the simple explanation cannot account for our results. In other words, we shouldn’t make our explanations more complicated than necessary RESEARCH METHODS Influence of spiritualism
  • Possessed by evil spirits
  • The movement of the moon & stars (‘Luna’) Typical and atypical
  • The processes that occur between them are unknown or not observable. Such internal processes must be on the basis of known relationships between external factors and the resulting effects.
  • Looking at the effect of something Watson and Little Albert
  • First experiment to produce fear
  • Unethical experiment
  • The researchers failed to decondition Albert to the stimuli he was afraid of, which should have been done after the experiment. Albert ended up passing away at the age of six due to hydrocephalus , a condition that can lead to brain damage.
  • Albert couldn't give consent Pavlov’s classical conditioning Unconditioned stimulus & unconditioned response
  • An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that leads to an automatic response
  • if the smell of food is the unconditioned stimulus, the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of food is the unconditioned response
  • Pavlov's classical conditioning : classical conditioning is a type of unconscious or automatic learning. This learning process creates a conditioned response through associations between an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus. Conditioned stimulus & conditioned responses
  • A conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that can eventually trigger a conditioned response. In the described experiment, the conditioned stimulus was the ringing of the bell, and the conditioned response was salivation. It is important to note that the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus. Cognitivism
  • Peeking inside the black box Jean Piaget
  • To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience. Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment.

Cognitive neuroscience & affective neuroscience

  • Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system, including the brain. Much of neuroscience focuses on molecular and cellular processes.
  • Cognitive neuroscience is the study of how cognitive operation Jean piaget:
  • Children see world differently than others
  • learning theory that focuses on how information is received, organized, stored and retrieved by the mind. It uses the mind as an information processor, like a computer. Therefore, cognitivism looks beyond observable behavior, viewing learning as internal mental processes
  • Brain functioning and emotions

Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud

  • Founder of psychoanalysis
  • a method for treating mental illness and also a theory which explains human behavior. Freud believed that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives, shaping our personality.
  • Also founder of psychoanalysis Unconscious mind •The unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that are outside of our conscious awareness. The unconscious contains contents that are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict Freudian slips
  • Nothing happens on accident, everything has a meaning
  • Detecting symbols can say the causes of behavior
  • Cant really verify Nature vs nurture

Evaluating inter reliability - raters agree on observations-

  • measure of consistency used to evaluate the extent to which different judges agree in their assessment decisions. Inter-rater reliability is essential when making decisions in research and clinical settings. If inter-rater reliability is weak, it can have detrimental effects. Validity- extent to which a measure assesses to claim Reliability IS NECESSARY for validity Reliability does not guarantee validity Replicability - ability to duplicate original findings of a study using new data Reproducibility- renew, reanalyze data find same results Replicability crisis- failed to be confirmed Open science movement- sharing data in public research archives ,looking at replications, pre register research (hypothesis, design, analysis)
  • Publishing sound science in scientific journal
  • Combats against file drawer problem
  • Find patterns , transparent