Rethinking Art: Definitions, Roles, and Perspectives | Study notes Art

Module 1. Rethinking Art

EBRON, Mark David F.

Overview:

The module challenges traditional definitions of art and invites

critical reflection on what qualifies something as art, who

determines this, and how cultural, historical, and social factors

play a role. It also encourages analyzing the shifting boundaries

between art and other fields, questioning fixed categorizations.

1. Defining Art

●Art’s definition remains elusive and heavily debated.

This stems from the diversity of artistic practices

across different cultures and eras.

●Traditional definitions often focus on art’s beauty or

skill, while modern contemporar y approaches

emphasize concept, intent, and social commentary.

●The debate often revolves around:

○Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Value: Is art

valuable because of its inherent qualities

(e.g., beauty, craftsmanship), or is its value

imposed by external agents like critics,

collectors, and institutions?

○Art vs. Non-Art Boundaries: What criteria

determine whether something is art? Can

functional objects or everyday items be art

(e.g., Duchamp’s ready-mades)?

2. Art and Representation

●Representational Art: Often mirrors reality,

whether through detailed realism (e.g., Renaissance

paintings) or more interpretive forms (e.g.,

impressionism). This type of art has traditionally

been seen as more accessible due to its direct

reference to the visible world.

●Abstract and Non-representational Art: Moves

away from direct representation to focus on form,

color, and emotional expression. Abstract art

challenges viewers to engage more subjectively, as

meaning is not explicitly tied to recognizable objects

(e.g. Pablo Picasso's “Guernica” (1937) oil painting -

black-and-white oil painting depicting the horrors of

war and human suffering; Cubist style creates a

fragmented, shattered reality that reflects the brutal

disruption of war).

●Styles are not merely about technique but carry

cultural and political significance.

○For instance, artists like Barbara Kruger use

bold, text-heavy images to critique

consumerism and gender dynamics, while

Filipino artist Imelda Cajipe-Endaya makes

use of indigenous materials to address

colonial histories.

3. Mimesis (Imitation)

●Plato: Viewing art as an inferior copy of reality,

misleading people by appealing to emotions rather

than reason

●Aristotle: Defending its educational and cathartic

value through art being the imitation of human

action and experience.

●Western Art Tradition: Mimesis dominated Western

art for centuries, where mastery was equated with the

ability to faithfully replicate nature. The Renaissance’s

focus on perspective and anatomy illustrates this

emphasis.

●The notion of imitation was not just about copying

but perfecting what nature could not (e.g., idealized

forms in Classical art). Even as styles evolved, the

ability to render realistic images remained a mark of

artistic skill until the rise of modernism.

4. Kantian Aesthetics - Disinterested Contemplation

●Immanuel Kant: Argued that aesthetic judgment is

rooted in a “disinterested” pleasure—appreciation of

art is separated from personal desires, utilitarian

concerns, or moral considerations. This

disinterestedness allows for a universal standard of

beauty.

●Challenges to Kant: Non-Western traditions often

integrate aesthetics with spirituality, utility, and

communal values, blurring the line between art and

craft. Moreover, contemporary art’s focus on social

issues and political critique highlights the limits of

Kant’s theory, as it often demands engaged rather

than detached viewing.

5. Materiality and Medium in Art

●The materials and techniques artists choose are

central to their work’s meaning. For example, using

indigenous materials can signal resistance to

colonialism, as in Imelda Cajipe-Endaya’s works.

●Modern art movements like Dada (irrationality,

humor, and silliness) and Conceptual Art emphasize

process and idea over traditional craftsmanship,

further complicating the notion of what constitutes

“proper” art.

●Medium specificity, a key concept in modernist art

theory, asserts that each art form should focus on its

unique properties (e.g., painting’s flatness, sculpture’s

three-dimensionality). Yet postmodernism has

blurred these distinctions through multimedia

practices and installation art.

6. Originality and Aura (Walter Benjamin)

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EBRON, Mark David F. Overview : The module challenges traditional definitions of art and invites critical reflection on what qualifies something as art, who determines this, and how cultural, historical, and social factors play a role. It also encourages analyzing the shifting boundaries between art and other fields, questioning fixed categorizations.

Defining Art ● Art’s definition remains elusive and heavily debated. This stems from the diversity of artistic practices across different cultures and eras. ● Traditional definitions often focus on art’s beauty or skill, while modern contemporary approaches emphasize concept, intent, and social commentary. ● The debate often revolves around: ○ Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Value : Is art valuable because of its inherent qualities (e.g., beauty, craftsmanship), or is its value imposed by external agents like critics, collectors, and institutions? ○ Art vs. Non-Art Boundaries : What criteria determine whether something is art? Can functional objects or everyday items be art (e.g., Duchamp’s ready-mades)?
Art and Representation ● Representational Art : Often mirrors reality, whether through detailed realism (e.g., Renaissance paintings) or more interpretive forms (e.g., impressionism). This type of art has traditionally been seen as more accessible due to its direct reference to the visible world. ● Abstract and Non-representational Art : Moves away from direct representation to focus on form, color, and emotional expression. Abstract art challenges viewers to engage more subjectively, as meaning is not explicitly tied to recognizable objects (e.g. Pablo Picasso's “Guernica” (1937) oil painting - black-and-white oil painting depicting the horrors of war and human suffering; Cubist style creates a fragmented, shattered reality that reflects the brutal disruption of war). ● Styles are not merely about technique but carry cultural and political significance. ○ For instance, artists like Barbara Kruger use bold, text-heavy images to critique consumerism and gender dynamics, while Filipino artist Imelda Cajipe-Endaya makes use of indigenous materials to address colonial histories. 3. Mimesis (Imitation) ● Plato: Viewing art as an inferior copy of reality, misleading people by appealing to emotions rather than reason ● Aristotle: Defending its educational and cathartic value through art being the imitation of human action and experience. ● Western Art Tradition : Mimesis dominated Western art for centuries, where mastery was equated with the ability to faithfully replicate nature. The Renaissance’s focus on perspective and anatomy illustrates this emphasis. ● The notion of imitation was not just about copying but perfecting what nature could not (e.g., idealized forms in Classical art). Even as styles evolved, the ability to render realistic images remained a mark of artistic skill until the rise of modernism. 4. Kantian Aesthetics - Disinterested Contemplation ● Immanuel Kant : Argued that aesthetic judgment is rooted in a “disinterested” pleasure—appreciation of art is separated from personal desires, utilitarian concerns, or moral considerations. This disinterestedness allows for a universal standard of beauty. ● Challenges to Kant : Non-Western traditions often integrate aesthetics with spirituality, utility, and communal values, blurring the line between art and craft. Moreover, contemporary art’s focus on social issues and political critique highlights the limits of Kant’s theory, as it often demands engaged rather than detached viewing. 5. Materiality and Medium in Art ● The materials and techniques artists choose are central to their work’s meaning. For example, using indigenous materials can signal resistance to colonialism, as in Imelda Cajipe-Endaya’s works. ● Modern art movements like Dada (irrationality, humor, and silliness) and Conceptual Art emphasize process and idea over traditional craftsmanship, further complicating the notion of what constitutes “proper” art. ● Medium specificity , a key concept in modernist art theory, asserts that each art form should focus on its unique properties (e.g., painting’s flatness, sculpture’s three-dimensionality). Yet postmodernism has blurred these distinctions through multimedia practices and installation art. 6. Originality and Aura (Walter Benjamin)

EBRON, Mark David F. ● Walter Benjamin’s “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction” : Explores how mass production (e.g., photography, film) erodes the “aura” of unique, hand-crafted art. Traditional art has an aura tied to its authenticity, history, and ritual context, which is lost when reproduced. ● Art as Language (Arnold Hauser) : Challenges the idea that art must be original. He argues that art, like language, is inherently intertextual—each work builds on previous expressions. This counters the modernist obsession with originality by valuing connection and evolution within artistic traditions.

Art as Intention and Expression ● Intention Theory : Proposed by figures like Arthur Danto, it claims that something becomes art if the creator intends it to be experienced as such within the artworld’s context. ● Expressionist Theories : Figures like R.G. Collingwood sees art as a vehicle for expressing emotions, where the primary purpose is communication of the artist’s inner experience. Expressionist theories heavily influenced modern art, leading to movements like Abstract Expressionism. ● However, these ideas are contested by those who argue that once art enters the public domain, the artist loses control over its interpretation. The audience’s role becomes crucial in determining meaning.
Formalist Approach (Clive Bell) ● Formalist Aesthetics : Emphasizes “significant form”—the arrangement of visual elements (e.g., line, color, composition) that evoke an aesthetic experience. Bell’s approach asserts that all great art, whether representational or abstract, shares this quality. ● Limitations of Formalism : Critics argue that it strips art of its context, ignoring how meaning is shaped by cultural, political, and historical factors. It is also seen as elitist, privileging works that align with Western notions of purity and taste while sidelining art forms rooted in different traditions or social practices.
The Role of the Audience and Social Context ● Taste (Pierre Bourdieu) : Suggests that our preferences in art are socially conditioned. Taste is a marker of class, shaped by education, upbringing, and exposure to culture. This theory challenges the notion that aesthetic judgment is purely individual or universal. ● Reception Theory : Argues that meaning is co-constructed by the viewer. Different audiences bring different experiences, biases, and interpretations, resulting in varied responses to the same work. For instance, an abstract painting may be seen as decorative by one viewer but deeply philosophical by another.
Institutional Theory (George Dickie) ● Artworld : Posits that art is defined by a network of institutions—museums, galleries, critics, and academics—who collectively determine what is recognized as art. It underscores the role of gatekeepers in shaping the art market and cultural canon. ● Critiques of Institutional Theory : Critics argue that this approach reinforces existing power dynamics and marginalizes voices outside the established artworld, such as self-taught artists or those from non-Western cultures.
Shifting Focus: Art’s Changing Social Roles and Meanings ● Rather than a fixed definition of art, this perspective looks at how art’s role has changed across different times and cultures. For example: ○ In pre-modern societies, art was often intertwined with religion and ritual. ○ The Renaissance elevated the artist to a creative genius, distinct from craftspeople. ○ In the modern era, art became a space for political critique, self-expression, and social commentary. ● This approach encourages examining art as a dynamic practice that adapts to the needs, values, and concerns of its time. Understanding art requires analyzing the cultural, social, and historical contexts that shape its production and reception. Some Definitions / Ideas: ■ Mimesis : Beyond mere imitation, mimesis involves interpretation and idealization. For centuries, it was the benchmark of artistic skill, but it has since been questioned as art’s purpose shifted toward expression, abstraction, and conceptual exploration. ■ Disinterestedness (Kant) : Central to Kantian aesthetics is the idea that true beauty is appreciated for its own sake. However, this ignores how art is often tied to identity, politics, and social realities, as seen in activist art or works addressing race and gender issues.

EBRON, Mark David F. performances like “The Artist Is Present”, the space between Abramović and each participant became a powerful medium through which emotions and energies were exchanged. This concept challenges traditional notions of space in art, encouraging a deeper exploration of how physical environments can shape and be shaped by human presence. ➢ Time as a Transformative Element : Abramović has elevated the role of time in art, using duration and endurance as central components of her work. By extending performances over hours or even days, she explores how time affects the artist’s body, mind, and connection with the audience. This focus on time challenges the conventional immediacy of art consumption and instead asks the audience to contemplate the slow unfolding of experiences, the passage of time, and its impact on both artist and viewer. ➢ Artist-Audience Relationship : Abramović has fundamentally altered the relationship between artist and audience, making it more intimate, confrontational, and reciprocal. Her performances often require the audience to confront their own emotions, biases, and ethical boundaries, making them active participants in the creation of the art. This dynamic relationship dissolves the traditional hierarchy where the artist creates and the audience passively consumes, fostering a more collaborative and introspective interaction. ➢ Community and Collective Experience : Abramović’s work has also expanded the concept of community in art. Her performances often become communal events where a shared experience is created among the audience, transcending individual reactions. This collective engagement fosters a sense of unity and shared purpose, encouraging participants to reflect on their roles within larger social and cultural contexts. By engaging with issues like violence, vulnerability, and human connection, her work prompts communities to examine their own dynamics and the ways in which they relate to one another. Martha Atienza video, "Our Islands 11°16’58.4”N 123°45’07.0”E" ● Underwater Procession : Martha Atienza’s video installation, “Our Islands, 11°1658.4" 123°4507.0"E”, depicts a traditional Philippine procession submerged underwater, creating an alienated, surreal effect. ● Symbolic Imagery : The procession features Christ carrying the cross, men in women’s clothes, political demonstrators, and armed henchmen, reflecting societal and political dynamics in the Philippines. ● Humor and Critique : The work blends humor and critique, addressing issues like political corruption and the state of society while highlighting the absurdity of some traditions. ● Climate Change Commentary : By setting the scene underwater, Atienza emphasizes the looming threat of climate change, particularly rising sea levels, which heavily impact the Philippines. ● Art as Social Commentary : The installation serves as both a visual commentary on Filipino culture and a broader critique of global issues such as environmental degradation. Martha Atienza’s practices challenge traditional boundaries in art, emphasizing the interconnectedness between the artist, audience, space, time, and community. Here’s how her work influences these dynamics: ➢ Blurring the Line Between Art and Community : Atienza’s work is deeply collaborative, involving her local community in Bantayan Island as both subjects and co-creators. This approach shifts the focus from the artist as an individual to art as a communal endeavor, highlighting shared experiences and collective storytelling. ➢ Reframing Space and Context : By placing traditional Filipino rituals in unconventional settings, such as underwater in “Our Islands, 11°1658.4" 123°4507.0"E”, Atienza alters how we perceive space and context in art. This recontextualization invites viewers to question the fixed nature of cultural practices and consider how space transforms meaning. ➢ Time as a Fluid Concept : Atienza’s work captures the evolving nature of traditions and societal issues over time. Her long-term engagement with her community, documenting their changing lives and challenges, underscores the idea that art can be an ongoing dialogue rather than a static representation.

EBRON, Mark David F. ➢ Active Engagement of the Audience : Her installations invite viewers not just to observe but to engage critically with the issues presented, such as climate change, cultural identity, and socio-political dynamics. The audience becomes a participant in the conversation, bridging the gap between art and real-world concerns. ➢ Redefining the Artist’s Role : Atienza’s practice positions the artist as a facilitator of dialogue rather than a solitary creator. By centering the voices and narratives of those within her community, she expands the role of art as a platform for empowerment and collective reflection. Wartenberg, Thomas. “What Makes ‘Art’ Such a Problematic Concept?” (2007)

Introduction: The Challenge of Defining ‘Art’ ● Wartenberg begins by addressing the central issue: the concept of “art” is inherently problematic due to its fluid nature. Unlike scientific terms with clear definitions, the concept of art resists any singular, fixed meaning. This resistance arises from the dynamic history of art and its diverse manifestations across cultures and epochs. ● Shifting Definitions Over Time : The concept of what qualifies as “art” has evolved dramatically. From ancient Greek sculptures emphasizing idealized forms, to the religious iconography of the Middle Ages, to the boundary-pushing works of the 20th century, the definition of art has constantly expanded and adapted. ● Example : Consider how classical paintings such as Leonardo da Vinci’s “Mona Lisa” (1503) align with traditional notions of beauty and skill, while contemporary works like Damien Hirst’s “The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living” (1991), a shark preserved in formaldehyde, challenges these conventional ideas.
Essentialism versus Anti-Essentialism in Defining Art ● Wartenberg outlines the philosophical battle between essentialists and anti-essentialists regarding the definition of art. ● Essentialism : This view argues that all artworks share some common, core properties or “essences” that define them as art. Traditional essentialists often point to qualities like beauty, expressiveness, or craftsmanship as these core features. For instance, Plato believed art must imitate reality, while later thinkers like Clive Bell argued that art possesses a unique “aesthetic emotion” derived from its formal properties. ● Problems with Essentialism : Essentialist definitions tend to be too rigid, excluding many forms of art that don’t fit into predefined categories. For example, modern and postmodern art often prioritize concept over form, which makes essentialist criteria insufficient. ● Anti-Essentialism : Anti-essentialists, following the lead of philosophers like Morris Weitz, argue that art cannot be captured by a fixed definition because it is an “open concept.” According to this view, art constantly evolves, adapting to new practices and interpretations. Weitz compares art to games: just as there isn’t a single definition that covers all games, there isn’t one that can encompass all art. ● Issues with Anti-Essentialism : Critics argue that without clear criteria, anti-essentialism can lead to an overly broad concept of art, where virtually anything can be considered art if someone claims it to be. This raises questions about standards and value in art. ● Example : Duchamp’s “Fountain” (1917), a ready-made urinal, challenges essentialist views by presenting a non-traditional object as art purely through context and intention. Anti-essentialists would argue that the significance of “Fountain” lies in how it redefines the boundaries of art, rather than fitting any traditional criteria.
The Relativity of Art Across History and Cultures ● Wartenberg emphasizes that definitions of art are deeply embedded in their historical and cultural contexts. Different societies and periods have had varying understandings of what art is, which complicates any attempt to create a universal definition. ● Historical Relativity : Art’s purpose and form have evolved over time. For example, during the Renaissance, art was closely tied to religious and aristocratic patronage, focusing on realistic depictions and technical mastery. In contrast, the 20th century saw the rise of abstract and conceptual art, where the emphasis shifted from representation to ideas, emotions, and the critique of societal norms. ● Cultural Relativity : Across cultures, what counts as art can vary widely. Western art traditions often distinguish between “high art” (like paintings and sculptures) and “craft” (like pottery and textiles). However, in many non-Western cultures, this division does not exist. Objects considered utilitarian in the

EBRON, Mark David F. the art world. These digital assets challenge traditional notions of art ownership and authenticity, illustrating how technology continuously redefines what art can be.

Conclusion: Why the Debate Matters ● Wartenberg concludes by arguing that the complexity and ambiguity surrounding the definition of art should be seen as strengths rather than weaknesses. The ongoing debate encourages exploration and innovation within the arts. The lack of a definitive answer reflects the richness and diversity of human creativity, ensuring that art remains an inclusive and dynamic field. ● The Value of Ambiguity : Rather than seeing the debate over art as a problem to be solved, Wartenberg suggests embracing the open-ended nature of art as it fosters inclusivity, diversity, and the constant renewal of artistic expression. The challenge of defining art mirrors its very essence: a field that thrives on exploration, interpretation, and transformation. Alice G. Guillermo’s “Art and Society”
Art as a Signifying Practice in Society and History ● Guillermo emphasizes that art cannot be separated from its social and historical context. Art is not merely a collection of forms, techniques, or media; it is deeply tied to the conditions and processes of its creation. Art objects are produced within a specific socio-historical framework, making them carriers of meanings that reflect the conditions of their production. ● Semiotic Approach to Art : Guillermo introduces the semiotic approach, where art is seen as a system of signs. Every visual element in an artwork ( the signifier ) corresponds to a concept or idea ( the signified ). This approach moves beyond traditional formalism, focusing on how these signs convey meanings rooted in both universal human experiences and local cultural codes. ● Polyphonic Meanings : Artworks can contain multiple layers of meaning, reflecting ideological tensions and contradictions. This view challenges interpretations that seek a singular, unified meaning in an artwork. Instead, Guillermo suggests exploring these contradictions, as they reveal the deeper conflicts and tensions present within a society.
The Dialogic Relationship Between Art and Audience ● Art is not a self-contained, hermetic entity; it is part of an ongoing dialogue with its audience. Guillermo argues that the interaction between the artwork and its viewers is crucial for understanding its full significance. ● Art as an Open Work : Contrary to purely formalist or postmodernist interpretations that focus solely on the surface, Guillermo asserts that art refers back to the real world. Art engages in a dialogic relationship where the viewer’s interpretation plays a role in the meaning-making process. ● Ideology and Social Context : Art carries worldviews and ideologies, which impact society by either reinforcing or challenging the status quo. Guillermo encourages critical analysis of these worldviews, asking whether they align with the goals of justice, freedom, and human dignity.
Art as a Construct ● Guillermo demystifies traditional notions of art as a natural reflection of reality or as the spontaneous expression of an artist’s subjectivity. She instead presents art as a constructed entity influenced by various socio-cultural factors. ● Defamiliarization and the Role of Social Institutions : Drawing from theories like Brecht’s “alienation-effect,” Guillermo highlights how art can distance audiences from conventional perspectives, encouraging critical thought. This also brings attention to how artists are shaped by their social environments, discourses, and institutional constraints. ● Questioning the "Genius" Myth : The notion of the artist as a unique, privileged genius is rejected in favor of viewing the artist as a product of their cultural and social context. This perspective also critiques the idea of art as a mysterious, ineffable creation rather than as a tangible result of labor and production.
The Social Import of Art ● Art, according to Guillermo, has inherent social functions because of the values and ideologies embedded in its creation and reception. These values are never neutral but are shaped by specific material conditions and cultural codes. ● Art as a Carrier of Values and Ideologies : Whether in painting, sculpture, or traditional crafts, art embodies worldviews that either support or critique social systems. For example, the use of certain colors, styles, or forms can reflect class-based aesthetics, gender norms, or ethnic identities.

EBRON, Mark David F. ● Healing, Therapy, and Resistance : Art’s social functions extend beyond aesthetics, as it can also serve purposes like healing, therapy, or political resistance. Guillermo gives weight to folk and indigenous art forms, which often challenge dominant cultural narratives and provide alternative viewpoints.

Decolonizing Aesthetic Discourses ● A significant portion of Guillermo’s work focuses on challenging the dominance of Western aesthetics in art discourse. She argues that Western art traditions have marginalized non-Western artistic expressions, often reducing them to mere ethnographic artifacts. ● Reclaiming Indigenous Aesthetics : Guillermo advocates for the recognition of local, indigenous aesthetics that have been historically suppressed by colonial powers. For instance, the weaving traditions of indigenous groups are not merely crafts but are part of a larger cultural heritage that resists colonial frameworks. ● Multiplicity of Aesthetic Traditions : Every society has its own aesthetic principles, which can differ significantly from Western canons. The recognition of these diverse traditions destabilizes the universal claims of Western aesthetics, opening up spaces for non-Western, folk, and popular arts to be valued on their own terms.
Reconstructing Filipino Identity in Art ● In the context of Filipino culture, Guillermo stresses the importance of developing a national art and culture that reflects the struggles, aspirations, and history of the Filipino people. ● Beyond the Colonial Distinction of High and Low Art : Guillermo rejects the colonial categorization of art into “high” (fine arts) and “low” (folk or applied arts). By discarding these distinctions, we can fully appreciate the rich traditions of indigenous arts and crafts, from textiles to communal performances, as integral parts of Filipino culture. ● Dynamic Concept of Filipino Identity : Filipino identity is not static but evolves with history. The dynamic interplay between traditional practices and contemporary innovations forms a rich tapestry of cultural identity that should be continuously explored and reclaimed. For example, the integration of indigenous symbols in contemporary Filipino visual arts highlights this ongoing process of identity formation.
The Nationalist Perspective and Cultural Sovereignty ● Guillermo advocates for a nationalist orientation in defining and developing Philippine art and culture. This perspective foregrounds the interests of the Filipino people and challenges hegemonic Western influences. ● Critical Engagement with Western Concepts : Guillermo is critical of uncritically adopting Western theories like postmodernism, which may not fully address the specific needs and conditions of neocolonial societies. Instead, she calls for original theorizing rooted in the Filipino experience, enabling cultural and artistic expressions that truly resonate with local realities. ● Reclaiming Marginalized Voices : Central to this nationalist project is the valorization of the marginalized and oppressed sectors, including indigenous peoples, peasants, and women. By bringing their cultural expressions to the forefront, Guillermo envisions a more inclusive, diverse, and empowered Filipino culture.
Conclusion: Toward a Filipino Point of View in Art and Culture ● Ultimately, Guillermo calls for a critical and independent Filipino perspective in art studies that rejects colonial frameworks and embraces the complexity and diversity of Filipino society. This perspective requires continuous research, documentation, and engagement with the cultural forms that have been neglected or marginalized. ● Fieldwork and Cultural Retrieval : Original research and fieldwork are vital in piecing together the rich and diverse tapestry of Filipino culture. For instance, documenting traditional crafts or oral histories can help preserve and invigorate these cultural practices, allowing them to thrive and adapt to contemporary contexts. ● Positioning Against Western Hegemony : By foregrounding Filipino needs, struggles, and aspirations, Guillermo’s framework provides a roadmap for cultural self-determination, positioning Filipino art and culture as central rather than peripheral to global artistic discourse. Examples and Applications ■ Weaving as Cultural Resistance : The traditional textile practices of indigenous groups like the T’boli or the Ifugao are not merely functional crafts but are imbued with cultural meanings that resist colonial homogenization. ■ Popular Art and National Consciousness : The study of popular Filipino media like komiks or

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