Media Theories -Unit 1 -Knowledge Organiser
Stuart Hall’s Reception Theory
Stuart Hall suggested that media texts contain a variety of messages that
are encoded (made/inserted) by producers a nd then decoded (understood)
by audiences. Therefore what we see is simply a ‘re-presentation’ of what
producers want us to see.
Hall suggested that t here are three different ways audienc es can
decode/view the media messa ges put forward by the producer:
Dominant/Preferred Reading -The audience accept and agree w ith the
messages put forward in t he media text
Negotiated Reading -The audience agree with some part but reject or are
opposed to other parts
Oppositional Reading -The audience reject the messag es that are trying to
be conveyed and do not a ccept/agree with them
For example, when watchin g a political speech, audienc es will either agree
with the messages, part ly agree or disagree completely depending on their
political persuasion and stance.
Video Link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U7RO60SkDbw
Further Reading: https://medium.com/@ateel/the-application-of-stuart-
halls-audience-reception-theory-to-help-us-under stand-whichlivesmatter-
3d4e9e10dae5
Laura Mulvey’s Male Gaze Theory
Laura Mulvey is a media theorist and she looked at how females are
represented in media texts. Mulvey created t he well known phrase the ‘male
gaze’. The theory suggest s that the male gaze denies women hum an identity,
and instead represents t hem as sexual objects who are incl uded for their
visual appeal only. The ‘male gaze’ occurs when the audience is put into the
perspective of a heterosexual man. A scene may focus on the curves of a
woman's body, putting the viewer in the eyes of a male
Mulvey, along with Stuart Hall, also identified how producers assigned
different genders to different rol es with media texts. She outlined how
males stereotypically take an active role in the narrative and females play a
passive role, for exampl e James Bond is the lead male character who saves
the day and drives the narrative for ward, he would be seen as the ‘Active’
role, whereas his female l over needs to be rescued and heavily relies on him
throughout the film, she would be classified as playing the ‘Passive’ role. Many
media texts use the ma le gaze, this can lead to a vari ety of negative effects
upon society including:
-Warped sense of reality for males
-Pressure on females to look a certain way
-Unrealistic ideologi es of gender roles
-Males assuming dominance in everyday life
Video Link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ru8GDxZqkXs&t=177s
Further Reading:
https://www.filminquiry.com/film-theory-basics-laura-m ulvey-male-gaze-
theory/
Stereotypes
Stuart Hall’s Representation Theory
Stuart Hall’s representation theory comes in three separate parts. The first part
is that the Media often use stereotypes:
Stereotypes are widely circulated oversimplifications of people and groups. A
stereotype is a preconceived idea of wha t a person is like, based on a range of
different factors. These factors can involve culture, religion, race, sexual
orientation, age, g ender, appearance.
In a variety of media t exts, females might stereotypically be seen as mothers who
are caring, emotional and as housewives, however males might stereotypically be
represented as brave, strong and confident. A nother example of a stereotype
used by the media is ethnic minorities being portrayed in a negative light, often as
dangerous or as criminals.
Stuart Hall believes th at stereotypes tend to come about when there are people
in power who are from the dominant hegemonic groups within society,
stereotypically white, upper class wealthy males. Stuart Hall believes that
because a lot of media companies are owned by individuals who would fall under
that hegemonic group, there is a ten dency for them to represent people from
outside of those groups in a very stereotypical way, because of the lack of
experience with people from those groups.
Video Link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HxK5CXfKSCI
Further Reading:
https://ww w.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ 10.1080/15295036.2016.1244725
Richard Dyer and Ster eotypes
Richard Dyer is a media theorist who analysed how societies create stereotypes,
these stereotypes can be used as a justifi cation for violence and aggression. For
example, Adolf Hitler ster eotypes an entire religion and was so driven b y these
negatives representations tha t he oversaw the deaths of over 6 million Jews.
Video Link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=at6TocaWGwY
Further Reading: Dyers STAR theory
http://resource.download.wjec.co.uk.s3.amazonaws.com/vtc/2015-16/15-
16_Int_02/pdf/part1/9b-Star%20Theory.pdf
Uses and Gratifications Theory
An active audience woul d access media texts for 5 main reasons, this i s
known as the uses and gratifications theory:
Entertainment -Audiences watch something because it is exciting and it
entertains them, this c an be applied to the majority of media texts
Education -Audiences watch som ething because they can learn from it . The
media texts informs and educ ates them
Escapism -Audiences watch something because it allows them to esc ape
from their everyday life and it transports them into the world of the media
text that they are watching
Social Interaction -Audiences watch something because it allows them to
interact with the show. There are various ways that audiences can interac t
(online, apps, playing along a t home etc)
Relating to people/characters/situations -Audiences watch something
because they can relate to somet hing on the show, and therefore develop a
connection with the media text
Video Link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aopqPs7rb_Q
Further Reading:
https://www.communicationtheory.org/uses-and-gratif ication-theory/
Alvarado’s Racial Stereotype Th eory
Alvarado had a racial stereotypes theory and identified that different ethnicities
in are represented in 4 main ways: Pitied, Dangerous, Exotic and Humorous
Video Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gvcLbRxC8w0
Further Reading: https://vocal.media/geeks/hit-or-miss-represented
Hypodermic Needle Theory
The Hypodermic Needle Theory impl ies that the media has a powerful,
immediate and direct impact on its audiences. The theory suggests that the
media could influence a very large group of people directly by ‘injecting’ them
with appropriat e messages designed to trigger a desired response. What we
see is a ‘re-presentation’ of what the pr oducers want us to see, we are
injected with information that we have no control over
The media is a dangerous means of communicating an idea as the receiver or
audience is powerless to r esist the impact of the message. Peopl e end up
believing what they are told because there is no other source of information
Being injected with information can lead to a moral panic. The media tells us
that there is an issue within society, we then panic about this issue because
the media are telling us to. Moral Panics can take many forms but they tend
to centre around disease, terrorism and drugs.
Video Link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qt5MjBlvGcY
Further Reading:
http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/21051/1/JNC-2013-Cha pter-24-Luce.pdf