Biofuels: Renewable Alternatives to Fossil Fuels, Exams of Environmental Science

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Biofuels as an Alternative Energy Source

ENST 480 Final Paper Spring 2008

Alex Whitaker and Megan McGillicuddy

I: Biofuels as an Alternative to Petroleum There exists an inherent and ever-looming problem with fossil fuels, currently the world’s dominant energy source. This dilemma centers on the fuel’s limited sustainability, not only in terms of its formation based on geologic factors, but also in terms its negative environmental and economic effects. Thus, there is a need for change in our mode of energy production to protect both our way of life and the planet that sustains us. While biofuels are not the only solution to the impending energy crisis, they represent one way in which humans can begin to replace fossil fuels’ overwhelming monopoly over our society. Biofuels can be defined as any type of fuel derived from living organisms, or biomass^1. Common sources of biomass include a wide range of plants, algae and some animal waste products. Since almost all energy in living things is obtained (directly or indirectly) from the sun, biofuel is in principle a form of solar energy. Energy from the sun is readily available, thus making biofuel a renewable resource. Petroleum on the other hand comes from ancient plants that died in silt beds and were pressurized over millions of years until they became oil^2. Because of the colossal timescale of this process, petroleum-based fuels are non-renewable; in other words, there is only a finite amount of fossil fuel in the earth and it could run out, or become economically unfeasible to obtain, at any time^3. It is estimated that 995 billion barrels of crude oil remain underground which can be mined at reasonable production costs. If this assessment is taken to be true, “cheap” oil would run out by the year 2025 and a majority of oil wells

(^12) Tickell 2003 3 Tickell 2003Tickell 2003

less hazardous to the environment in case of leakage, unlike the immensely destructive effects of oil spills^10. The one area in which biofuels do not perform well is the emission of the greenhouse gas NOx, which is slightly higher (an average of 10%) than fossil fuel levels^11 . Not surprisingly, biofuels have become much more competitive with petroleum in the last five years, both economically and logistically. Because fuel prices remained at low levels during the 1980’s and 1990’s, there was little incentive for the average consumer to pursue other options. But these low prices did not represent the true cost of petroleum to society; this phenomenon is known as an externality. In this case, there are negative externalities associated with petroleum because of the environmental damage it causes and because of the U.S. government’s oil subsidy^13. Yet today’s rising oil prices (despite still having negative externalities) have made alternative fuels economically feasible for the first time since the gasoline shortages of 1973 and 1974, the last intense period of biofuel research^14. It is also becoming more apparent that purchasing fossil fuel from foreign countries leaves the United States vulnerable to sudden policy changes and supports foreign economies while shrinking our own^15. These issues, along with a renewed sentiment of environmentalism in our society due to the increased possibility of global climate change, have driven both biofuel supply and demand higher. Thus, the cost of biofuel is remaining constant, so only the continuing rise of oil prices or government intervention can make this alternative fuel

(^1011) Wu 1998 12 Jensen 2005Calais and Clark 2004 (^1314) Hill et al. 2006 15 Wu 1998Tickell 2003

economically truly viable. In Germany, where their vegetable oil fuel is not taxed, biodiesel costs 25% less than petroleum diesel^16. If similar modifications could be made to American laws, widespread biofuel use could help to reduce the country’s carbon footprint and help to create a sustainable energy plan for the future.

II: Sources of Biofuel Biofuels can be produced from various different sources, often dependant on geography and seasonal availability. In addition, these fuels can be utilized for different means of energy production. For this project, the focus was primarily on biofuel for transportation means. Currently, the most common biofuel used for transportation is corn ethanol, which is blended with gasoline. This blend can be used in all gasoline vehicles without modification at low ethanol concentrations (<10%); higher percentages of ethanol require some engine modification, including higher rates of fuel injection to accompany the biofuel’s decreased efficiency compared to gasoline. In 2005, 1.48 x 10^10 liters of ethanol were produced from corn, representing 1.72% of U.S. gasoline usage^17. While the inclusion of corn ethanol is a vital step in the widespread use of biofuels, it is not a viable or satisfactory replacement for gasoline. In terms of energy output, ethanol releases only 25% more energy than needed for its production from corn and for the distilling process. This value is low compared to other biofuels^18. In addition, combustion of corn ethanol decreases greenhouse gas emissions by only 12% compared to gasoline due to the release of various nitrates and nitrites, and due to the intense fermenting process needing for its creation. One must also consider social issues like (^1617) Jensen 2005 18 Hill et al. 2006Hill et al. 2006

briefly by petroleum before it has a low enough viscosity to run the engine^23. The other approach is biodiesel synthesis, where the vegetable oil is chemically altered into a viable, standalone fuel. Making biodiesel from vegetable oil is an involved process than requires several steps and knowledge of chemistry techniques. However, once finished, this biodiesel can be run on existing diesel engines with very limited modification^24. These discrepancies in functionality relate to the fuels’ chemical compositions. All vegetable oil is composed of triglycerides, the basic unit of fat. Triglycerides consist of a glycerol head and three fatty acid chains bound to the head through esters^25. Pure vegetable oils (hence triglycerides) often solidify under low temperatures due to polymerization and auto-oxidation; they are also viscous at room temperature for the same reason. This fact explains why straight vegetable oil engines must be started on petroleum diesel before the waste oil can be used^26. Creating biodiesel is then essentially a way to lower the oil’s melting point and make it less viscous. This is done through “transesterification”, or cleaving the ester bonds between the fatty acid tails and the glycerol head. Glycerol is then eliminated, leaving only the fatty acids which can be easily combusted in diesel engines^27. While the exact vehicle conversions will be covered in the economics section, converting one’s automobile to run on either of these fuels has wide-ranging ramifications. For one thing, the U.S. Department of Energy reports that the production and use of biodiesel results in a net 78.5% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions when

(^2324) Tickell 2003 25 Tickell 2003Calais and Clark 2004 (^2627) Calais and Clark 2004 Calais and Clark 2004

compared to that of petroleum^28. Vegetable oil also releases far less nitrogen and phosphorous than corn ethanol^29. Additionally, straight vegetable oil and biodiesel will provide a vehicle with just as much power as petroleum diesel and few problems are reported in short-term engine performance^30. However, the long-term effects of vegetable oil on diesel engines are a point of contention. Some studies show that prolonged use of SVO can “coke up” or leave carbon deposits on the pistons, resulting in erratic engine performance^31. However, it is also pointed out that these deposits occur when vegetable oil is used at low temperatures and can be avoided by proper heating upon starting the engine^32. Studies also suggest that vegetable oil would have less of an effect on engines if it were blended with diesel petroleum; this is true for biodiesel as well, although there is very limited information available on this fuel’s effect on engines^33. Many critics also decry the use of petroleum in straight vegetable oil engines, saying that this technology is ultimately still dependant on fossil fuel. While this is true, SVO can be considered as a gateway to other biofuels because of its ease of use. Also, because waste vegetable oil is used, there is little effect on the world’s impending food shortage. A final and exploratory type of biofuel is cellulosic ethanol. This fuel, while identical in composition and use to corn ethanol, comes from grasses and woody plants. Ethanol coming from these sources would release nearly 300% of the energy that is taken to grow them when accounting for biomass co-generation and the use of marginal land^34.

(^2829) http://epa.gov/OMS/smartway/growandgo/documents/420f06068.pdf 30 Hill et al. 2006Calais and Clark 2004 (^3132) Jones and Peterson 2002 33 Calais and Clark 2004Jones and Peterson 2002 (^34) Hill et al. 2006

biodiesel as a fuel substitute produced from non-petroleum source^36. Although no modifications need to be made to the vehicle when running on biodiesel, vehicle maintenance must be considered. Biodiesel acts as a solvent and dissolves petroleum deposits in the bottom of fuel lines and tanks; as a result, filters will have to be changed more frequently.^37 Since biodiesel is a registered fuel and fuel additive, it can either be bought locally at Tri Tank Corporation in Syracuse, NY. The biofuel sold at Tri Tank is B fuel and is a blend of 80% petroleum diesel and 20 % biodiesel, and is sold from the pump at $4.789/gal. In Oneonta, NY, the Mirabito Fuel Group distributes B100 fuel (100% biodiesel), sold at the pump for $4.479/gal. Both locations are over an hour away from Colgate University, and these prices are higher than those of petroleum diesel^38. Therefore, for economic reasons Colgate should not consider purchasing biodiesel from such a distribution center. If biodiesel is not purchased, it can be made from vegetable oil, methanol, and lye in a lab. In order to use biodiesel, it must first meet registration requirement for fuels and fuel additives established by the EPA Clean Air Act^39. This is because biodiesel production facilities must be EPA certified to form a legal operation and to maintain a warranty on the vehicle^40. Today, nearly all engine companies approve of the use of B20 biofuel, and only some have specified that any kind of biodiesel must meet the ASTM D-6751 (American

(^3637) Federal Register 2007 38 Tickell 2003Mapquest.com (^3940) Federal Register 2007 “Standards and Warranties” Biodiesel.org

Society for Testing and Materials) Specification for Biodiesel Fuel Blend (B100)^41. The BQ-90000 Quality management program, part of the National Biodiesel Accreditation Program, certifies companies that are activity producing and marketing standardized biodiesel that meet ASTM-D specifications; the certification lasts for three years. First, there is an application fee of $1,000. Additionally, an audit fee of $2,000 for Colgate to produce EPA certified biodiesel is also charged^42. Furthermore, to produce biodiesel one would need a lab, a large supply of methanol, lye and other chemicals, as well as a processor; each contributes to a substantial processing cost. Biodiesel processors range from $3,000- 8,000, producing one gallon of biodiesel for every gallon of filtered vegetable oil^43. The Freedom Fuel Biodiesel Processor sells for $2,995.00 and a 10% discount is added when sold to schools. The processor makes 40 gallons of washed biodiesel in twenty four hours ( gallons with expansion tanks), and requires only 30 minutes of actual hands on time^44. Waste vegetable oil would be collected for free from downtown restaurants to use as a starting material; the collection is described in more detail in the following section. Additionally, New York State charges a tax on all fuels. If Colgate were to consider producing its own biodiesel, the University would have to pay a diesel tax (includes 24. cpg federal excise tax) at 64.7 cents per gallon^45. Another “green” alternative to petroleum is to convert one Colgate cruiser to run on straight waste vegetable oil. The vegetable oil does not have to be converted into any form of biodiesel; however, several adjustments must me made to the vehicle itself (See

(^4142) Federal Register 2007 43 http://www.bq-9000.org/www.homebiodieselkit.com (^4445) www.homebiodieselkit.com http://newyorkgasprices.com/tax_info.aspx

Unfortunately, modifying a car to run on any other fuel than what was designed for is a violation of the Clean Air Act. Vegetable oil is not approved as motor vehicle fuel by the EPA^48. In addition, the vehicle may lose its warranty after conversion since vegetable oil car conversions are not legal through the EPA^49. In order to continue using a converted vehicle, Colgate would have to register as a diesel motor fuel distributor and may have to pay a $2,500 to New York State Department of Department of Taxation and Finance (Form TP-650). Additionally, a tax return would be filed every month since the vehicle would not be running on diesel fuel^50. Rules and regulations aside, a “green” cruiser at Colgate would certainly be possible. Out of the 200 gallons of waste vegetable oil collected from food services around town, approximately one third is unusable waste products (food particles, fat, etc.) that need to be filtered out. Once filtered, the remaining 133 gallons could be used for conversion into biodiesel, or to fuel a converted cruiser that is able to run on straight vegetable oil. We also need to take into account that vegetable oil is around 80% efficient compared to petroleum diesel^51. With that said, Colgate is left with roughly 107 gallons/ week of petroleum equivalent. The main cruiser travels 700 miles per week at 8 miles per gallon, thus using only 88 gallons of fuel a week. Therefore it is possible for one Colgate Cruiser to be run almost exclusively on vegetable oil with a diesel primer, and still have extra vegetable oil leftover for emergencies. As noted earlier, if the Home- Biodiesel-Kit processor were to be used, one gallon of filtered vegetable oil is equivalent to one gallon of biodiesel.

(^4849) Federal Register 2007 50 http://epa.gov/OMS/smartway/growandgo/documents/420f06068.pdfRobert Williams, Representative of New York State Department of Taxation and Finance, interviewed by author, Hamilton, NY, May 1, 2008. (^51) Tickell 2003

The use of both biodiesel and waste vegetable oil fuels reduce emissions, both are renewable, biodegradable and carbon neutral, and both reduce sulfur and soot. From an environmental point of view, one cannot go wrong with either of these options. However, when considering time and money, waste vegetable oil is a better option for Colgate (See Figure 2). It seems that the most economically savvy option is to utilize the waste vegetable oil from downtown restaurants and to convert one of the Colgate Cruisers to run on SVO. This option requires initial upfront costs of buying a Greasecar kit for approximately $2,500 (we will need a consultation to gauge the exact price), the NY state bond, purchasing a vegetable oil pump at $50 and paying a mechanic; this will raise this up-front investment to roughly $ 5,500. After the conversion from a straight diesel engine to a SVO system, there are very few future expenditures. Once a week someone must collect the oil from each restaurant and oversee the gravity filtration process. Collection and filtration should take no longer than 3 hours and could be paid for at a wage of $25/hour. A lab does not have to be set up to convert the vegetable oil to biofuel, meaning this time-intensive and constant conversion procedure does not figure into the cost. Since the cruisers are always running, vegetable oil only has to be heated up one time at startup; little petroleum diesel would be used. Applicable diesel taxes would need to be paid for SVO as well. As noted earlier, burning one gallon of diesel fuel releases 22.2 pounds of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. While it is difficult to provide a specific factor by which burning straight vegetable oil reduces greenhouse gas emissions, studies generally set this value at around 75%^52. Applying these numbers to Colgate means that one full-time cruiser using 88 gallons of petroleum diesel per week releases approximately .97 tons of (^52) Tickell, 2003.

IV: Figures Figure 1: Diagram of a Two Tank Conversion.

(http://members.iinet.net.au/~hit4six/public_html/oztayls/My%20WVO%20Conversion-fuel%20diagram2.pdf)

Figure 2: Cost comparison of Alternative Fuel Options for one Colgate Cruiser. Waste VegetableOil Colgate MadeBiodiesel PurchasedBiodiesel PetroleumDiesel Source ofVegetable Oil Free Free -- -- Additives

--

Methanol:$1.50/gal (methanex.com)=$28.95/week Lye: $ 3.78/lb(www.certified- lye.com/) =$18.95/week

---

Pick up/deliveryto Colgate $75/week $75/week -- -- VehicleConversion + Mechanic

~ $3,500 -- -- --

BiodieselProcessor -- $2,695.5 -- -- Pump Bonds/Fees $50$ 2,500 bond must $50 -- -- be paid to statebecause WVO is not yet approved byEPA’s clean air act.

$1,000application fee to be approvedby ASTM qualitystandards + $2,000 audit feefor certification = $3,

---

Diesel Tax forNew York State: 64.7 cents/ gallon=$56.61/ week (assuming 87.5gallons/week are used on onecruiser)

64.7 cents/gallon= $56.61/ week(assuming 87. gallons/weekare used on one cruiser)

64.7 cents/gallon= $56.61/ week(assuming 87.5gallons/week are used onone cruiser)

64.7 cents/gallon= $56.61/ week(assuming 87. gallons/week areused on one cruiser) Final Cost ToRun One Cruiser $131.61/week $179.51/week Tri TankCorp, Syracuse: $401.53/week Mirabito,Oneonta: $391.91/week

$392.86/week

The company that comes to pick up oil from downtown restaurants charges between $50- 65 per visit according to Nichols and Beal. However, New York Pizzeria reported thatthey pay $10 a visit.

Waste Vegetable Oil Restaurant Summary: Colgate Dining Halls : 600 lbs/week Where does the waste oil go? Donated to biofuel users. Numero Uno : 35 lbs/week. Where does the waste oil go? Restaurant pays a company comes to pick up abarrel a month. Is the restaurant willing to donate its waste oil? Yes. Parkside Deli : 245 lbs/week. Where does the waste oil go? Restaurant pays a company comes to pick up abarrel a month. Is the restaurant willing to donate its waste oil? Yes. Oliveri’s Pizzeria : 105 lbs/week Where does the waste oil go? Restaurant pays company to pick up waste oil.Roughly 2 barrels of oil are picked up each month Is the restaurant willing to donate its waste oil? Yes. Colgate Inn : 210 lbs/week Where does the waste oil go? The restaurant pays a company to remove oilroughly one time a month. Is the restaurant willing to donate its waste oil? It is interested in donating; however the manager is considering using the oil to fuel his company cars. Nichols and Beal Where does the waste oil go? The restaurant pays a company to remove oil every: 210 lbs/week 1.5 weeks. It costs $50-65 per visit. Is the restaurant willing to donate its waste oil? Yes. Main Moon Where does the waste oil go? Restaurant pays company to pick up waste oil.: 122 lbs/ week Is the restaurant willing to donate its waste oil? Maybe. New York Pizzeria (Slices) : 140 gal/ week (70 lbs every 4 days) Where does the waste oil go? A Company from Rochester picks it up. Every pickup costs $10.00. Is the restaurant willing to donate its waste oil? Maybe. Pizza Hut : 123 lbs/week

Where does the waste oil go? No waste oil because they do not use deep-fryers. McDonald’s : Where does the waste oil go? The McDonalds chain has a contract with H& K company. All of the waste oil goes to that company. Is the restaurant willing to donate its waste oil? No. VJ’s Diner : 111-140 lbs/ week Where does the waste oil go? Restaurant pays company to get rid of waste oil. Is the restaurant willing to donate its waste oil? Yes. Hamilton Club House Where does the waste oil go? Waste oil is picked up every couple of months.: 105 lbs Is the restaurant willing to donate its waste oil? Yes.

Biofuel Recipe Calculator: http://www.biodieselcommunity.org/recipecalculator/ 87.5 gallons of oil /week, 22% methanol (19.3 gal), 5.00 M lye (75.9 oz)

SOURCES:

1. “Biodiesel Accreditation Program.” www.bq-9000.org. Accessed 4/18/2008.
2. Calais, P. and Clark, A.R. (2004) Waste Vegetable Oil as a Diesel Replacement Fuel. Murdoch University and Western Australian Renewable Fuels Association, Western Australia.
3. “Emission Facts.” www.epa.gov. Accessed 4/17/2008.
4. Federal Register. (2007) Regulation of Fuels and Fuel Additives: Renewable Fuel Standard Program; Final Rule. Part II: Environmental Protection Agency. (72):
   83. pp. 23900-24012.
5. “Freedom Fuel Biodiesel Processor.”4/18/2008. www.homebiodieselkit.com. Accessed
6. “Greasecar Vehicle Conversions.” http://www.greasecar.com. Accessed 4/17/2008.
7. “Grow & Go: Frequent Questions”. EPA: Smart way Gro & GO. (http://epa.gov/OMS/smartway/growandgo/documents/420f06068.pdf). Accessed 4/16/2008.